The data support the conclusion the investigators concluded that the new hantavirus infects lung endothelial cells (option C)
The examinee must decide whether the data presented supports the researchers' conclusion that the new pathogen infects lung endothelial cells.
Option A is not the best answer because no experiment discussed in the passage directly demonstrated viral replication in endothelial cells. Option B is not the best answer because the gene sequences from known hantviruses in Experiment 2 could have hybridized with RNA rather than DNA if hantaviruses have RNA genomes and could have hybridized with viral sequences in lung tissue other than endothelium. Option C. Because antibodies bound viral antigens present in lung capillary walls or endothelium in Experiment 3Option D is incorrect because none of the experiments presented in the passage demonstrated the presence of viral antigens in lung alveoli.As a result, C is the best option.
The question is incomplete, it should be:
The investigators concluded that the new hantavirus infects lung endothelial cells. Do the data support this conclusion?
A.) Yes; viral replication was demonstrated in endothelial cells.
B.) Yes; viral DNA was found associated with lung capillaries.
C.) Yes; viral antigens were found associated with capillary endothelium.
D.) No; viral antigens were found associated with lung alveoli.
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Those that carry impulses from the cns out to the muscles and glands is?
Efferent neurons, also known as motor neurons, send impulses from the CNS to effector organs such as muscles and glands.
Motor neurons direct nerve impulses away from the central nervous system. Neurons end up in muscles or glands that are effectors.
Efferent neurons, also called motor neurons, are nerve fibers that carry signals from the brain to the peripheral nervous system to initiate behavior. In other words, the neurons that tell the body to do things like take your hands off a hot pot.
Motor neurons, especially lower motor neurons, are considered efferent neurons because they carry nerve impulses from the central nervous system.
Afferent neurons are sensory neurons that carry nerve impulses from sensory stimuli to the central nervous system and brain, and efferent neurons are motor neurons that carry nerve impulses from the central nervous system to muscles to induce movement.
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Is A starch A polysaccharide?
Starch is a polysaccharide made up of several glucose molecules. Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), & oxygen (O) combine to form glucose, a monosacharise.
Starch seems to be a polysaccharide and complex carbohydrate formed of a chain of covalently bonded glucose molecules. Pure starch is a tasteless, odourless, white powder derived from plants that is a substantial component of modern human diets. Most green plants make starch to store excess glucose produced during photosynthesis.
Glycogen is a more highly branched polymer containing glucose monomers that serves as an energy storage molecule in mammals. Glycogen is mostly generated and stored in liver and muscle cells. When they require more energy than photosynthesis provides, they trap glucose as part of a carbohydrate molecule or break off smaller glucose units.
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This transport is considered to be the opposite of diffusion because it moves molecules from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration- against the concentration gradient.
The transport that is considered to be the opposite of diffusion because it moves molecules from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration- against the concentration gradient is called active transport.
Active transport is a process that moves ions or molecules against their concentration gradient. It utilizes a protein carrier to move molecules across a membrane, like a pump. This is done with the help of enzymes, which are biological catalysts, that helps to facilitate the transport process. Examples of active transport include the sodium-potassium pump, which maintains the concentration of ions inside and outside of cells, and the endocytosis and exocytosis of molecules by cells.
Active transport requires energy, which is typically provided by the cell in the form of ATP, to move molecules across a membrane. This process is in contrast to diffusion, which is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, and does not require energy.
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choose the statement that is true. a. the krebs cycle produces most of the atp when glucose is catabolized. b. the krebs cycle is inhibited if the cell lacks oxygen. c. the oxygen in the co2 produced by the krebs cycle comes from atmospheric oxygen that binds to the carbons derived from glucose during the krebs cycle. d. a and b are correct. e. a, b, and c are correct.
The statement "the krebs cycle is inhibited if the cell lacks oxygen" (option b) is true, because If there is no oxygen, the respiratory cycle cannot function, and the Krebs cycle is shut down.
The krebs cycle is powered by lipids (fats) and carbohydrates, which both produce the molecule acetyl coenzyme-A. (acetyl-CoA). This acetyl-CoA reacts in the first of eight steps of the Krebs cycle, which all take place inside the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells. While the Krebs cycle produces carbon dioxide, it does not directly produce significant chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and this reaction sequence does not require any oxygen. Instead, this cycle generates NADH and FADH2, which feed into the respiratory cycle, which is also found inside the mitochondria. The respiratory cycle is in charge of producing large amounts of ATP and consuming oxygen. Furthermore, the respiratory cycle converts NADH.
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What part of the brain is responsible for maintaining homeostasis by directing the pituitary?
The hypothalamus is responsible for maintaining homeostasis by directing the pituitary gland.
Smaller than the thalamus, the hypothalamus is a part of the brain. It plays a crucial role in regulating many important physiological processes, including body temperature, hunger, thirst, and hormone regulation.
One of the key functions of the hypothalamus is to direct the pituitary gland, which is often referred to as the "master gland" of the body. The pituitary gland releases a number of hormones that control other endocrine glands, such as the thyroid and adrenal glands.
The hypothalamus is responsible for releasing releasing releasing hormones that signal the pituitary gland to secrete or inhibit the secretion of specific hormones, thus maintaining homeostasis in the body.
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8. Which material would make the best material for a new house in southern Florida? How about a house in Minnesota? Metal because it reflects the most heat and light this is actually earth sicence
Answer: Metal is right
Explanation: With heat and snow metal is the way to go.
Cerebrospinal fluid is formed by capillary knots called ______, which hang into the ventricles of the brain
Answer:
choroid plexuses
Explanation:
What are polysaccharides in plants called?
Starch is a plant polysaccharide that is predominantly found in cereal grains, roots and tubers such as potatoes, cassava and manioc, and legumes such as peas, chickpeas .
Generally speaking, cereal grains, roots and tubers like potatoes, cassava, and manioc, as well as legumes like peas, chickpeas, and beans include starch, a type of plant polysaccharide. It is shocking how different starch granule form and characteristics may be. Plant polysaccharides are macromolecules that are made up of several monosaccharides containing - or -glycosidic linkages, some of which may be same or different. They can be present in plants in the form of starch, cellulose, pectin, and other substances. The molecular weight and content of polysaccharides from various species vary due to the vast spread of plant polysaccharides. The bioactivities of plant polysaccharides and their suitability for therapeutic uses have garnered a lot of research in recent decades. The cell wall structure determines the extraction technique.
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you need to disinfect a lab bench after inoculating a series of agar plates. which of following does not influence the effectiveness of the disinfectant you are using? concentration of bacteria on the lab bench the temperature of the room what species of bacteria you were working with whether the lab bench was recently cleaned all of these influence disinfectant effectiveness
All affect the effectiveness of the disinfectant, namely the species of bacteria you were working with, the temperature of the room, the concentration of bacteria on the lab bench, and whether the lab bench was recently cleaned.
Disinfection is intended to kill or inactivate pathogenic microorganisms in the water. Important pathogenic bacteria that are often found in drinking water are Salmonella, Shigella, enterotoxigenic E. coli, Campylobacter, Vibro, and Yersinia.
The effectiveness of disinfectants is influenced by several factors, including duration of exposure, temperature, disinfectant concentration, pH, and the absence of interfering substances. pH is an important factor in determining the effectiveness of a disinfectant, for example, chlorine compounds will lose their disinfecting activity at an environmental pH of more than 10. An example of an interfering compound that can reduce the effectiveness of a disinfectant is an organic compound.
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cell growth phase where a cell increases in size, carries on metabolism, and duplicates chromosomes prior to division.
Cell growth phase where a cell increases in size, carries on metabolism, and duplicates chromosomes prior to division is known as interphase.
Divided into three stages: G1, S, and G2. During G1, the cell growth and carries out normal metabolic functions. In S phase, the cell replicates its chromosomes in preparation for cell division. In G2, the cell checks for any errors in replication before initiating cell division. Interphase is the period of the cell cycle during which a cell grows and replicates its DNA in preparation for cell division. During G1, the cell carries out normal metabolic functions, grows in size, and checks for any DNA damage. If the cell detects any damage, it can either repair the damage or initiate programmed cell death (apoptosis). In S phase, the cell replicates its DNA, doubling the number of chromosomes in preparation for cell division. This process is tightly regulated and controlled to ensure that each daughter cell receives a complete and accurate copy of the genetic material. In G2, the cell undergoes a final growth phase and checks for any errors that may have occurred during replication. If errors are detected, the cell may initiate apoptosis or delay cell division until the errors can be repaired. Once interphase is complete, the cell can enter the mitotic phase (M phase) and divide. Interphase is the longest phase of the cell cycle, taking up about 90% of the time, and it's the time when most of the cell's metabolic functions and growth occur.
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what is the overall charge of the nucleus of an atom?
Because it contains protons, the nucleus has an overall positive charge. There is no overall charge on any atom (neutral). This is due to the fact that they have an equal number of positive protons and negative electrons.
Atoms make up everything in the universe. The chemical and physical properties of an element are determined by the structure of the atom.
Atoms are composed of three subatomic particles known as electrons, protons, and neutrons.
Electrons
Energy levels are circles formed by negatively charged particles spinning around the positive center of the atom. Their mass is almost non-existent.
Protons
Positively charged particles with a mass of 1amu that are found in the nucleus of the atom (the center) (atomic mass unit).
Neutrons
The nucleus of the atom also contains uncharged particles. They have a mass of 1amu as well.
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'Death of Rare White Rhino Leaves 5 in the World' Article
White Rhino Article Questions:
1. How many white rhinos are left in the world today?
2. What was the name of the white rhino that most recently died?
3. Identify at least 2-3 major factors that are contributing to the death and extinction of white rhinos.
4. How might interbreeding save the species?
5. What are the pros and cons of the interbreeding idea?
6. Explain what the article means when it states that white rhinos are a “victim of evolution.”
2744 Rhinos will be left after 10 years.This question has to do with exponential decay rate. We solve this using the formula:
P(t) = Po(1 - r)^t
Where P(t) = Amount left after t years
Po = Initial amount
r = Decay rate = 3.7% = 0.037
t = time in years = 10 years
P(t) = 4000(1 - 0.037)¹⁰
P(t) = 4000 × 0.963¹⁰
P(t) = 4000 × 0.6859032667003232
P(t) = 2743.6130668
Approximately = 2744 Rhinos will be left after 10 years
What is a rate of depreciation?The rate of depreciation is the rate at which the number or value of an item reduces within each specified period.
The initial number of black rhinos in 1970 = 60,500
The number of black rhinos remaining in 2011 = 4,000
Rhino poaching is a serious problem and has resulted in rhinos, particularly the black rhino, becoming an endangered species. Statistics suggest that there were 60 500 black rhinos at the beginning of 1970, but only 4 000 remained at the end of 2011.
Therefore, 2744 Rhinos will be left after 10 years.This question has to do with exponential decay rate. We solve this using the formula:
P(t) = Po(1 - r)^t
Where P(t) = Amount left after t years
Po = Initial amount
r = Decay rate = 3.7% = 0.037
t = time in years = 10 years
P(t) = 4000(1 - 0.037)¹⁰
P(t) = 4000 × 0.963¹⁰
P(t) = 4000 × 0.6859032667003232
P(t) = 2743.6130668
Approximately = 2744 Rhinos will be left after 10 years
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What are the leukocytes that stain red with eosin dye?
Eosinophils are the leukocytes that stain red with eosin dye .It is another type of granulocyte with cytoplasms that contains large granules that generally stain bright red with a red dye eosin.
Eosinophils, also known as acidophils, are a different form of granulocyte with cytoplasms that include big granules that often stain bright red with a red dye called eosin and can also stain with other acid dyes. Eosinophils are similar in size to neutrophils in terms of size. Eosinophils have a bilobed nucleus and make up between 2 and 4% of WBCs. They are phagocytic and take in foreign objects that have been marked with an antibody. Their main method of attack is the exocytosis of poisonous substances, including as nitric oxide and cytotoxic enzymes, onto targets' surfaces. Since they are drawn to the area of damage, an increase in their population may signify inflammation, allergies, etc. Eosinophils' nuclei only contain two lobes, as can be seen. Large acidophilic-specific granules are present in these cells.
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How does meiosis lead to genetic variation and why is this variation important?
Answer:
Due to a unique stage in meiosis called Pachytene.
Explanation:
In this stage, a process called crossing-over occurs, which is an exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids. This stage begins when synapsis is complete. The DNA of two sister chromatids -one maternal and one paternal- is broken by specific proteins. the DNA breaks are closed up so that each broken end is joined to the corresponding segment of the non sister chromatid. Thus, a parental chromatid is joined to a piece of maternal chromatid and vise versa.
Variation It distinguishes one creature from another. Natural selection requires variation. Variations in an organism's species aid in adaptation to the environment and assist to avert extinction.
What is the structural properties of starch?
The structure of starch, particularly amylose concentration, granule size distribution, granule shape, granule-granule interaction, granular volume fraction, & continuous phase viscosity, all impact its rheological characteristics.
Starch seems to be a polysaccharide and complex carbohydrate formed of a chain of covalently bonded glucose molecules. Pure starch is a tasteless, odourless, white powder derived from plants that is a substantial component of modern human diets. Most green plants make starch to store excess glucose produced during photosynthesis.
Glycogen is a more highly branched polymer containing glucose monomers that serves as an energy storage molecule in mammals. Glycogen is mostly generated and stored in liver and muscle cells. When they require more energy than photosynthesis provides, they trap glucose as part of a carbohydrate molecule or break off smaller glucose units.
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sea stars are genetically different from each other and from their parents. these genetic differences are the result of
Seastars are genetically different from each other and from their parents. This genetic differences are the result of In mitosis, the products are identical to the parent cell, while in meiosis the products are different from the parent cell.
The study of genes, genetic diversity, and heredity in organisms is known as genetics. It is a significant field of biology since heredity is essential to the evolution of organisms. Gregor Mendel, a Moravian Augustinian monk working in Brno in the nineteenth century, was the first to do scientific research on genetics.
Mendel investigated "trait inheritance," which is the pattern of how traits are passed down from parents to children over time. He noticed that organisms (pea plants) receive features by way of distinct "units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene.
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Classify these hypotheses about the ocean as falsifiable or non-falsifiable.
Limestone erodes faster than
basalt when exposed to
ocean salt water.
The rugged Panama coastline
offers a wonderful experience
for fishing enthusiasts.
Shallower tide pools support
more algae growth.
Warm ocean water is
more enjoyable to swim
in than cool ocean water.
Falsifiable: The shoreline of Panama gives a magnificent experience, and swimming in warm water is more delightful.
Non-falsifiable: Basalt erodes more slowly than limestone, and algae can develop in tide pools that are shallower.
Falsifiability is the capacity to show that a claim, assertion, theory, or hypothesis is false. The idea of falsifiability states that a scientific hypothesis can only be believed if it can be disproven. This implies that the theory must be able to be disproven by testing. The possibility of the hypothesis being disproved at a later point in time or location does not necessarily imply that it is faulty or inaccurate.
Those hypotheses that are intrinsically impossible to refute due to technical or subjective issues. Confidently stating that a thesis or hypothesis is true or untrue, even when the notion or hypothesis may not be able to be refuted by observation or the results of any physical experiment, is typically proof; non-falsifiability is non-falsifiability without strong or sound reasoning.
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initiates the synthesis dna by creating a short rna segment is called
The initiation of DNA synthesis begins with the production of a short RNA segment called a primer. Primers are short sequences of RNA nucleotides that are complementary to the template strand of DNA.
Primers are synthesized by an enzyme called primase, which uses the template strand of the DNA as a guide. These primers are then used as a starting point for the replication of the DNA. DNA polymerase, an enzyme that adds nucleotides to the primer, then binds to the primer and begins to synthesize the complementary strand of DNA.
The primers are then removed and replaced by DNA nucleotides. This process of primer synthesis and DNA replication is repeated until the entire DNA sequence is copied.
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to what part of the brain are both general and most special senses carried?
To the thalamus of the brain are both general and most special senses carried.
The thalamus is a large mass of grey matter located in the dorsal portion of the diencephalon (a division of the forebrain). The thalamus releases nerve fibres in all directions that travel to the cerebral cortex, allowing for hub-like information exchanges.
Each thalamus is divided into roughly three main parts: the anterior, medial, and lateral thalamus, depending on where the internal medullary lamina is located.
The thalamus transmits sensory signals to the cerebral cortex from receptors located throughout the body. A sensory impulse that travels from the body's surface is received by the thalamus, which then interprets it as a sensation. After processing this sensation, the cerebral cortex interprets it as touch, pain, or temperature.
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cell growth phase where a cell increases in size, carries on metabolism, and duplicates chromosomes prior to division?
O telophase
O interphase
O metaphase
O anaphase
The period of cell development known as interphase occurs just before division and is when a cell enlarges, maintains metabolism, and doubles chromosomes.
The G1, S, and G2 phases of the cell cycle are all considered to be interphase, which is the part of the cell cycle during which no changes can be seen under a microscope. The cell multiplies (G1), copies its DNA (S), and gets ready for mitosis when it is in interphase (G2). An interphase cell is not just dormant. The word "quiescent" (i.e., "dormant") would be inaccurate because a cell in interphase is actively synthesising proteins, transcribing DNA into RNA, swallowing external material, processing signals, to name just a few tasks. The only way the cell is dormant is in terms of cell division (i.e. the cell is out of the cell cycle, G0). An average cell spends the majority of its time in the interphase phase of the cell cycle.
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What causes retinal pigment epithelium?
A single layer of regular polygonal cells arranged at the retina's outermost layer forms the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE).
The choroid-blood-retinal barrier with Bruch's membrane and the choroid at the lateral retina is formed by the tight junction that exists between the single-layer RPE and the gap junction. This junction also controls the movement of substances. Melanin, which prevents ultraviolet light damage to the retina and internal nerves, is what gives the RPE its dark brown appearance. Additionally, the RPE is home to a complex metabolic system that reduces oxidative damage and the excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS).
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gentamicin is an antibiotic that is used to treat bacterial infections. a hospital reports a sudden outbreak of a new gentamicin-resistant strain of escherichia coli in 5 out of 25 patients of the intensive care unit. on further investigation, it was determined that this new strain was found only in patients that were also infected with a known gentamicin-resistant strain of klebsiella pneumonia. what is the most likely explanation for the development of this new antibiotic resistant strain of escherichia coli?
Answer:
The most likely explanation for the development of the new antibiotic-resistant strain of Escherichia coli is that it acquired the gentamicin-resistant gene from the Klebsiella pneumonia strain through horizontal gene transfer. This type of gene transfer is when genetic material is transferred between non-related organisms, allowing the recipient organism to gain new genetic traits. In this case, the E. coli strain likely acquired the gentamicin-resistant gene from the K. pneumonia, allowing it to become resistant to the antibiotic.
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3.2 billion year old microfossils found in deposits which were once microbial mats in shallow south african marine environments provide compelling evidence for the structure of the first blank . multiple choice question.
Billion year old microfossils found in deposits which were once microbial mats in shallow South African marine environments provide compelling evidence for the structure of the first Prokaryote.
These microfossils are believed to be the earliest known evidence of life on Earth, representing the transition from simple organic molecules to more complex, cell-like structures.
The microfossils are generally oval or spherical in shape, with a distinct inner and outer membrane. They are believed to be the precursors to more complex cells, such as those containing nucleic acids, which eventually gave rise to all known forms of life on Earth.
Complete question:
Billion year old microfossils found in deposits which were once microbial mats in shallow south african marine environments provide compelling evidence for the structure of the first blank . multiple choice question.
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the abnormal hardening of the walls of an artery or arteries.
Atherosclerosis is the abnormal hardening of the walls of an artery or multiple arteries.
Normally, arteries are elastic as well as flexible but after some time, the walls of these arteries can harden. Atherosclerosis, which is also called the hardening of the arteries, occurs when there is a build up of cholesterol, fat and other substances in the walls of arteries. These deposits are known as the plaques.
Over time, these plaques get narrowed down and completely end up blocking the arteries and lead to problems throughout the body. Atherosclerosis can be prevented by reducing the use of tobacco, decreasing the amount of LDL in diet, keeping body weight in check etc.
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(SCIENCE A car traveling 20 m/s has a mass of 1,800 kg. What is its momentum? Show your work and include units.
)SCIENCE)
The momentum of a car traveling 20 m/s has a mass of 1,800 kg and is found to be 36000 kg m/s.
What is momentum?Momentum may be defined as the quantity of motion of the body with respect to time. It is the product of the mass and velocity of an object. It is a vector quantity as it typically possesses a magnitude and a direction.
According to the question,
The mass of a traveling car, m = 1800 kg.
The velocity of a car, v = 20 m/sec.
Therefore, the momentum is calculated with the help of the following formula:
Momentum = Mass × Velocity.= 1800 kg × 20 m/sec = 36000 kg m/s.
Therefore, the momentum of a car traveling 20 m/s has a mass of 1,800 kg is found to be 36000 kg m/s.
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what is chyme and how does the stomach mix this material?
Chyme is a viscous semi-fluid that develops in the stomach and intestine during digestion and is made up of partially digested food and digestive secretions. To create chyme, which is a mixture of food and digestive fluids, the muscles of the stomach walls flex.
The partially digested food-containing acidic liquid known as chyme is transported to the small intestine. By combining food, enzymes, and gastric juices, the stomach combines this. (The stomach produces this clear fluid.) Chyme is a viscous semi-fluid that develops in the stomach and intestine during digestion and is made up of partially digested food and digestive secretions. To create chyme, which is a mixture of food and digestive fluids, the muscles of the stomach walls flex. Since the majority of the stomach wall is formed of proteins, it needs to be protected because the acid in our stomachs would otherwise eat right through
Mostly protein makes up the gut wall. Gastric juices would eat through the stomach walls if allowed unchecked. Fortunately, the lining of the stomach walls contains epithelial cells that secrete a coating of mucus and bicarbonate that acts as protection.
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multicellular eukaryotes that have cell walls and are autotrophic
All multicellular eukaryotic organisms that possess chlorophyll are classified as Kingdom Plantae.
All plants belong to the kingdom Plantae. They are multicellular, eukaryotic, and autotrophic creatures. Every plant cell has a rigid cell wall. Since they can produce their own food using sun energy, they are autotrophs. Plant cell walls are made of cellulose. They have the capacity to multiply their cells.
Bryophytes (mosses), gymnosperms (cone-bearing seed plants), angiosperms, and vascular plants that do not bear seeds make up the majority of the Kingdom Plantae (flowering seed plants).
The kingdom of autotrophic, multicellular, and photosynthetic eukaryotes includes these organisms. These are mainly non-motile, embryo-forming creatures that function as the ecosystem's primary producers thanks to their capacity to transform solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis.
The complete question is:-
What are multicellular eukaryotes that have cell walls and are autotrophic?
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Transmit information in the form of nerve impulses throughout the body is called: ___________
Transmit information in the form of nerve impulses throughout the body are called sensory neurons.
Sensory neurons are nerve cells whose function is to transmit impulses from the sensory organs to the brain. Motor neurons carry impulses from the brain or spinal cord to effectors (muscles or glands in the body).
Sensory neurons have long dendrites and short axons. The location of sensory neurons is directly related to the sense organs (receptors)
Sensory neurons respond to stimuli such as touch, sound, or light that affect sensory organ cells and transmit signals to the spinal cord or brain.
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If you are looking for maximum strength and protection with the mat that you 1 point
use, what would be an appropriate choice?
O Lightweight One-ply board
4
OTwo-ply board
O Extra thick eight-ply board
Extra thick eight-ply board would be an appropriate choice.
What precisely is fabric?The word "fabric" refers to cloth or other materials made by weaving together threads like cotton, nylon, wool, and silk. Clothes, drapes, and sheets are all made from fabrics.
If you want a mat that promotes the most strength and protection, choose one with a thick fabric, full-bodied fibres that are difficult to unravel, and high standard softness.
What are the various types of fabric?Fabrics can be loosely categorised into synthetic fabrics and natural fabrics based on the kind of fibres they are created from. Natural materials include things like cotton, denim, wool, and silk.
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Complete question is-
If you are looking for maximum strength and protection with the mat that you 1 point
use, what would be an appropriate choice?
A) Lightweight One-ply board
B) Two-ply board
C) Extra thick eight-ply board
D) Three-Ply board
I NEED HELP!!
"describe what happens to whitelight when it passes through a glass prism and explain why."
Answer:
As light passes through a prism, it is bent, or refracted, by the angles and plane faces of the prism and each wavelength of light is refracted by a slightly different amount.
the light gets dispersed and there is a formation of a seven colours spectrum