Answer:
one specie's will out compete the other, forcing the other species to adapt or risk extinction
Which group of components is common to the circulatory systems of most living animals?
Vessels, heart, and circulating fluid is the group of components common to the circulatory systems of most living animals.
The circulatory system, which is composed of blood vessels and aids in transporting blood away from and in the direction of the heart, can be thought of as a system in the body. Both the arteries and the vein are present there; the arteries assist in moving blood away from the heart while the vein is responsible for returning blood to the heart. This implies that option B is the correct choice.
The circulatory system acts to remove waste materials like carbon dioxide with the help of circulating fluid in the vessels and to transfer other materials like oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells with the same circulating fluid in another vessels.
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Complete question is:
Which group of components is common to the circulatory systems of most living animals? A. arteries, veins, capillaries B. vessels, heart, circulating fluid C. aorta, ventricles, atria D. blood, heart, cavities
a man is heterozygous for the hemoglobin gene, with one normal allele and one sickle allele. what are the chances that one of his sperm cells will have the sickle allele for hemoglobin?
Any given child has a 50% chance of receiving one copy of the HbS gene, resulting in the sickle cell anemia trait.
Sickle cell anemia cannot be passed down from one parent to the next if only one possesses the trait. Each child has a 25% chance (or 1 in 4) of having sickle cell anemia if both parents have the trait. SCT is a condition that affects people who inherit one normal gene and one sickle cell gene. This means that although the person won't actually have the disease, they will be a "carrier" of the trait and may pass it on to their offspring.
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mining companies are required to re-vegetate lands that were strip mined after removal of the ore/ fuel. however, it was found that trees that were planted in these mined soils were unable to establish. this was because through the process of strip mining, all the top soil was removed and the soil was missing mycorrhizal fungi that live on and in the roots of the trees to help them obtain nutrients from degraded and nutrient-poor soils. the trees cannot survive without the mycorrhizal fungi, and the mycorrhizal fungi are dependent on trees for survival. the relationship between trees and mycorrhizal fungi can best be described as . pick the best answer.
The relationship between trees and mycorrhizal fungi can best be described to be a symbiotic relationship.
Symbiotic interactions between fungi & plants are known as mycorrhizae. A host plant's root system is colonized by fungi, which boost the plant's ability to absorb water as well as nutrients while giving the fungus access to the plant's carbohydrates produced while photosynthesis. Fungi and plant roots interact in symbiotic ways. In exchange for the trees' or shrubs' assistance, the fungus receives nutrients like carbon, sugars, and other elements from the roots. Mycorrhiza is the name for the symbiotic association between fungus and plant roots.
Mycorrhiza is a fungus's root system. To be more precise, mycorrhizae are fungi that coexist with the roots of several plants in a symbiotic manner. The fungi that create mycorrhizal connections with plants are found all over the earth.
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the combined effects of inhibitory and excitatory effects on a postsynaptic cell will decide whether that cell generates an action potential. this principle is called .
Combined effects of inhibitory and excitatory effects on a postsynaptic cell decide whether cell generates an action potential and his principle is called summation.
What is summation?Additive effect of several electrical impulses on a neuromuscular junction that is the junction between a nerve cell and muscle cell is called summation. The stimuli cannot evoke a response individually but collectively they can generate a response.
Summation is the process of adding things up and similarly in the case of nervous system, it is about adding up the effect of multiple stimuli.
Summation is a neurotransmitter-induced tug-of-war between all excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic currents. Outcome of the contest determines whether a postsynaptic neuron becomes an active element in the neural circuit to which it belongs or not.
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Two parents have a child. Both parents carry a copy of the Huntingtons allele.
What is the percent chance that the child does not inherit Huntingtons?
Both parents carrying a copy of the Huntingtons allele means that the percent chance that the child does not inherit Huntingtons is 25% and is denoted as option A.
What is Allele?This is referred to as the variant form of a gene and can be homozygous or heterozygous.
We were told that both parents carry a copy of the Huntingtons allele which means that they are heterozygous for the trait and can be expressed as seen below:
Hh × Hh = HH Hh Hh hh
This therefore means that the chance of them producing a child with Huntington’s disease is 3 in 4, or 75% while the chance of the child not inheriting it will be 100% - 75%b = 25%.
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Which of the body plans is described as animals that can be split into two equal pieces that are mirror images of each other? (choose all that apply)
cephalization
radial symmetry
bilateral symmetry
asymmetry
Bilateral symmetry is described as animals that can be split into two equal pieces that are mirror images of each other (option C).
What is symmetry in biology?Symmetry is the exact correspondence on either side of a dividing line, plane, center or axis.
Symmetry can either be radial or bilateral depending on the plane. Radial symmetry is the form of symmetry in which identical parts are arranged in a circular fashion around a central axis.
Bilateral symmetry is the property of being symmetrical about a vertical plane. It is when the body plan can be divided along a plane that splits the animal's body into right and left sides that are mirror images of each other.
Therefore, when an animal can be divided into two equal planes that are mirror images, this is known as bilateral symmetry.
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Answer:
I hope this helps.
Explanation:
In guinea pig, rough coat i dominant (R) to mooth coat (r) and black coat (B) i dominant to white coat (b). A rough black guinea pig bred with a rough white one produce 29 rough black offpring, 31 rough white offpring, 11 mooth black and 9 mooth white. Give the genotype of the parent, punette quare
RrBb (rough, black) and Rrbb (rough, white) are the genotypes of the parents guinea pigs.
The parent genotype cannot have RR alleles for their coat because the smooth coat phenotype is present in the offspring. Similar to this, the rough, black parent is unable to have BB alleles in its genotype because doing so will prevent its offspring from having a white coat color. This can be understood with the help of the punnet square given in the answer. Therefore, the probability for each phenotype would be as follows:
rough black- 3/8 rough white- 3/8 smooth black- 1/8 smooth white- 1/8A dihybrid cross is made up of two people who share two traits that are controlled by two different genes. The idea of a dihybrid cross was developed as a result of Gregor Mendel's observation of pea plants that were either round or wrinkled, yellow or green.
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In a family that carries an X-linked recessive trait, which outcome would be expected?
X linked recessive trait in this condition will have equal chances of expressions in the conditions.Option A is correct.
What is a X linked recessive trait ?X linked recessive trait means that the mutated gene is present on the X chromosome.
Thus, The mutated gene present on the X chromosome will have equal chances that is 50% in sons and 50% in daughters.
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the keto diet aims to induce a metabolic condition known as ketosis by almost eliminating the intake of carbohydrates. individuals on the keto diet sometimes use urinalysis test strips to confirm their body is in ketosis. what changes in the urinalysis test parameters would you expect someone in ketosis would experience?
Ketogenic dieters occasionally use urine sample strips to determine whether they bodies are in ketosis.
What are bad carbs?People may consider refined carbohydrates to be bad since they offer less nutrients, such as refined rice and flour. beverages like juices and sodas that have been sugared. delicacies that have undergone a lot of processing, such cookies and pastries.
Do you prefer rice to bread?The choice between rice and bread will depend on your nutritional objectives because rice has much more minerals and vitamins while bread contains fewer calories as carbs. Whatever you choose, choose the whole-grain kind for the greatest results on your health.
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a sample of water is tested for mutagens. the water is subjected to a process known as high pressure liquid chromatography which can separate compounds based on their different biochemical properties. as material leaves the hplc column its absorbance is measured at uv light which is used to detect a variety of different compounds. these readings were recorded as a trace on a graph (top chart in the figure). fractions from the column are collected and then tested in an ames assay (bottom chart in the figure). in this assay there were 900 colonies with the solvent alone control. which fractions contain mutagens?
The fractions that contain mutagens are that of high peaks.
For the concentration or fractionation of mutagenic residue organics from small, >5OL, and large, to 12OOL, volumes of drinking water obtained from various sources, a general procedure has been developed. This process involves chromatographic concentration of the residual organics through water passage by UV absorbance. High peaks thus highlight the presence of mutagens.
Organic solvents are used to elute the residue organics from the resins, after which the solvent is removed and a bioassay for mutagenicity is conducted. The remaining residue organics are next fractionated using a combined bioassay/analytical fractionation technique that gradually narrows the emphasis to the bioactive components of the complex mixture of remaining residue organics.
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which component of the epidermis initiates immune responses and provides a defense against environmental antigens?
Due to their position within stratified epithelia, Langerhans cells serve as the first line of defense against environmental infections.
In homeostatic settings, non-activated LCs are continuously moving to the lymph nodes to present self-antigen and create immunological tolerance.Langerhans cells (LCs) are important cellular elements that play important roles in both the innate and adaptive arms of the immune response (2). The dendritic cell (DC)/macrophage family, which includes LCs, is found in the epidermis where it forms a dense network with which potential invaders must communicate.The majority of the epidermis' cells are keratinocytes. They serve as the innate immune system's initial line of defense against infection. They have pattern-recognition receptors called Toll-like receptors (TLRs), which identify conserved chemicals on infections and start an inflammatory response.
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which of the following correctly describes myoglobin's special function in muscle tissue? a. synthesizes atp b. breaks down glycogen; c. synthesizes creatine d. produces action potentials e. acts as a reservoir for oxygen
The special function of myoglobin in muscle tissue is e. acts as a reservoir for oxygen.
In the field of biology, myoglobin can be described as a protein whose primary function is to store and then supply oxygen to the muscle cells when in need.
As we know, the muscle cells of the body require more oxygen when going through vigorous exercise activities. Hence, to meet the requirements of oxygen for muscle cells, myoglobin acts as a reservoir for oxygen and supplies it to the muscle cells of the body when in need.
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The _________ is a mixed gland with endocrine and exocrine functions that produces the majority of the digestive enzymes.
The Pancreases is a mixed gland with endocrine and exocrine functions that produces the majority of the digestive enzymes.
An organ of the digestive system, the pancreas is crucial in transforming the food we eat into energy for the body's cells and vertebrate endocrine system. It serves as a gland in humans and is situated in the abdomen, behind the stomach. The pancreas is a mixed or heterocrine gland, meaning that it performs both endocrine and exocrine functions related to digestion.
Exocrine function, which aids in digestion, and endocrine function, which controls blood sugar, are the pancreas' two primary tasks.
The secretions of the exocrine component travel through ducts. The pancreas is a gland that produces both exocrine (digestive enzymes) and endocrine (insulin) hormones.
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in parts of asia, many fruit crops are pollinated by hand using feathers. this human method of pollination is used because
In parts of Asia, many fruit plants are pollinated by hand using feathers. This method of human pollination is used because the excessive use of pesticides has greatly reduced the bee population.
Pesticides are one of the results of modern technology that has an important role in improving people's welfare. Its use appropriately and safely is an absolute thing that must be done considering that pesticides are toxic substances. The wrong use of pesticides or their unwise management can have negative impacts, both directly and indirectly, on human health and the environment
The negative impact of excess pesticides can become dangerous pollutants for aquatic and terrestrial biota. Various wanted species were poisoned and then died. Different species of animals have different immunity. Some are sensitive, some are resistant. Young animals and larvae are animals that are sensitive to pollutants. Some animals can adapt so that they are immune to contaminants and some are not. Although animals are capable of adaptation, it must be recognized that there is a limit to the degree of adaptation of animals. If this limit is exceeded, the animal will die.
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Pedigree Clues
Anthony is the uncle of Judith.
Peter's mother (not on the pedigree chart) is color blind.
Angela is a carrier.
Marcello and his brother-in-law, Eddie, were classmates at Ellington.
Steven's older brother is Frank.
Harry, a former teacher at Wilson, is the father-in-law of Michael.
Victoria's sister-in-law's husband has normal vision.
Maria's granddaughter is colorblind.
Peter's sister-in-law's husband, Carl, is a state senator.
Melissa is the cousin of Agnes, who is a palm reader.
Judith is the cousin of Thomas.
Eddie's wife has a father named Michael.
Judith is color blind.
Victoria and her sister-in-law, Edith, were high school best friends.
Marcello's uncle is color blind.
Roberto's uncle, Peter, played basketball for Duke.
Edith's daughter is named Melissa. Melissa is an accomplished pianist.
Peter's sister-in-law's husband has normal vision.
Angela has an aunt named Judith who believes in ghosts.
Edith's grandfather has normal vision.
Victoria's father has normal vision.
Marcello's brother Jonathan is second oldest.
Michael's mother is colorblind.
Frank has normal vision.
Angela is very fond of her grandmother Victoria.
Roberto has only one cousin.
Marcello's brother Jonathan has normal vision.
Thomas is Josephine's favorite grandson.
Maria's daughter is a carrier.
Edith's grandfather has a son named Steven.
Edith's youngest brother is colorblind.
Jonathan and Anthony are brothers.
Angela is the great-great granddaughter of Maria.
Jonathan's brother Marcello has two children.
In terms of genetics, a pedigree is a diagram that shows how a trait or medical condition is passed down through a family's generations.
Thus, When information is available, the pedigree specifically demonstrates the ties between family members and identifies which relatives possess the desired trait(s).
A pedigree is a chart that shows the relationships between the various family members. It is a graph, so it is easy to see who is connected to whom and their relationships, such as parent, brother, or cousin.
A pedigree can also assist in determining the potential consequences of a trait or condition as well as how it may be carried down through the generations.
Thus, In terms of genetics, a pedigree is a diagram that shows how a trait or medical condition is passed down through a family's generations.
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10. describe the activity and appearance of the coliforms on hektoen agar. name the ph indicator. what is the main use for hektoen agar plates? g
Answer:
isolation and culture of gram-negative enteric microorganisms
Explanation:
which x-ray does not involve injecting a dye into the bloodstream? question 20 options: a) cystography b) intravenous pyelogram c) excretory urography d) all of these
Cystography does not require the bloodstream to be injected with a dye like x-ray does (answer:option a.cystography).
Bloodstream infection: What is it?Bloodstream infections (BSIs) are infectious diseases characterized by the presence of feasible bacterial as well as fungal microbes in the bloodstream that cause or have caused an inflammatory reaction characterized by alteration of diagnostic, laboratory. This presence is later demonstrated either by positivity of one or even more blood cultures.
Do veins contain blood?Veins. These are the blood arteries that return blood to the heart from the body. Capillaries. These are microscopic blood channels that carry oxygen-rich blood throughout the body between arteries and veins.
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According to the provided statement, a dye is not injected into the patient's circulation during a cystography x-ray.
How does the body fight bloodstream infection?
body. Blood transfers waste products from living cells and supplies them with nutrients and oxygen. Additionally, it transports immune cells that fight infections and has platelets that can block a blood vessel that has been injured in order to stop blood loss. The circulatory system allows blood to adjust to the body's requirements.
Does alcohol get into your bloodstream?
Because the body can only metabolize roughly 0.25 ounces of alcohol per hour, one serving of alcohol is completely absorbed into the blood stream within 30 to two hours of consumption. each person reacts to alcohol differently.
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what are the two components of the cardiovascular system? group of answer choices veins and heart capillaries and veins arteries and heart heart and blood vessels arteries and veins
The two components of the cardiovascular system are arteries and veins. The cardiovascular system is in charge of distributing blood to various regions of the body.
cardiovascular system is made up of the organs and tissues listed below:
A closed blood cardiovascular system, Among these vessels are:
Arteries are blood vessels that transport blood out from the heart.Veins are Blood vessels that return blood to the heart.Capillaries are small blood veins that branch off from arteries to supply blood to all bodily tissues.The body has two blood circulation systems. The first is the circulatory system as a whole. This is the main blood circulatory system that transports blood to the body's organs, tissues, and cells. The pulmonary circulatory system is the second system. The circulatory system transports blood from the heart to the lungs. It is the site where oxygen enters and carbon dioxide exits the circulation.
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with a microscope, you examine some somatic cells from a woman and notice that each nucleus has two barr bodies. what can you infer about the sex chromosomes in this individual?
'with a microscope, you examine some somatic cells from a woman and notice that each nucleus has two barr bodies. She is XXX can you infer about the sex chromosomes in this individual.
Long segments of DNA are carried by chromosomes, which are organelles that can be found in the nucleus of cells. The substance that houses genes is called DNA. It serves as the foundation for the human body. Additionally, proteins found in chromosomes aid in the appropriate structure of DNA.
What about chromosomes?Long segments of DNA are carried by chromosomes, which are organelles that can be found in the nucleus of cells. The substance that houses genes is called DNA. It serves as the foundation for the human body. Additionally, proteins found in chromosomes aid in the appropriate structure of DNA. The term "autosomes" refers to the first 22 pairs of chromosomes. A person's gender at birth is determined by the sex chromosomes, which make up the 23rd pair of chromosomes. Chromosomes exhibit the highest level of DNA and protein organization. Carrying DNA and transmitting genetic material from one generation to the next is the main function of chromosomes.Cell division involves the critical function of chromosomes. They guard against tangles and damage to the DNA. Another type of aneuploidy is monosomy, which is the loss of one chromosome in cells. Greek is the language of number one, and monosomy refers to a condition in which cells contain only one copy of a certain chromosome rather than the usual two. Turner syndrome, also known as monosomy X, is a condition caused by monosomy.There are billions of cells in your body, but they are too small to observe without a powerful microscope. Chromosomes, which are strands that resemble threads and carry hundreds or even thousands of genes, are found inside the majority of those cells. Physical characteristics like the color of your eyes are determined by genes.Learn more about chromosomes here:
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a 40-year-old black man is in the office for his annual physical. which statement regarding the prostate-specific antigen (psa) blood test is true, according to the american cancer society? the psa:
The Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) blood test is true according to the American Cancer Society if should be done at age 45 years.
What are the American Cancer Society recommendations for Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA)?The Аmericаn Cаncer Society (АCS) recommends thаt men hаve а chаnce to mаke аn informed decision with their heаlth cаre provider аbout whether to be screened for prostаte cаncer.
Аge 50 for men who аre аt аverаge risk of prostаte cаncer аnd аre expected to live аt leаst 10 more yeаrs.Аge 45 for men аt high risk of developing prostаte cаncer. This includes Аfricаn Аmericаns аnd men who hаve а first-degree relаtive (fаther or brother) diаgnosed with prostаte cаncer аt аn eаrly аge (younger thаn аge 65).Аge 40 for men аt even higher risk (those with more thаn one first-degree relаtive who hаd prostаte cаncer аt аn eаrly аge).Your question is incomplete, but most probably your full choices were
A) should be done with this visit.
B) should be done at age 45 years.
C) should be done at age 50 years.
D) is only necessary if there is a family history of prostate cancer.
Thus, the correct option is B.
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the orange coloring on the surface of the outcrop consists of iron oxide minerals and bacteria. the iron comes from the oxidation of in the coal. the water coming from the mine is .
Mine drainage is the water exiting the mine. Water and rocks that contain minerals that include sulfur react chemically to generate it.
An underwater mine is what?In order to harm or destroy surface ships or submarines, self-contained explosive devices known as naval mines are submerged in the sea. Mines are positioned and allowed to wait, unlike depth charges, until they are activated by any vessel or a specific type of vessel approaching or coming into touch with them, similar to anti-infantry vs.
What causes a mine's corrosive water to flow out?Pyrite, an iron sulfide, combines with air and water to produce sulfuric acid and dissolved iron when it is exposed, which causes mine drainage. Red, orange, or yellow sediments can occur as some or all of this iron precipitates, forming the bottom of streams carrying mine drainage.
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where do somatic motor commands to skeletal muscles of the upper and lower appendages exit from the spinal cord?
The somatic motor commands to skeletal muscles of the upper and lower appendages exit from the spinal cord from ventral roots.
The motor root of a spinal nerve, which emerges from the anterior side of the cord and transmits motor information from the spinal cord to the rest of the body. The efferent motor root of a spinal nerve is known in anatomy and neurology as the ventral root of the spinal nerve, anterior root, or motor root. The ventral root and dorsal root combine at the spinal nerve's distal end to generate a mixed spinal nerve.
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why do some plant species that are independent at low altitudes become interdependent at high altitudes
Although these advantages are not as important at low altitudes, the plants' benefits to one another enable them survive at high altitudes.
The extreme conditions of their environment, which include low temperatures, aridity, UV radiation, and a brief growing season, force high-altitude plants to adapt. High altitudes are inhospitable to tree growth due to the chilly temperatures and scarcity of precipitation. Low air density and atmospheric pressure at high altitude result in lower carbon dioxide levels and a slower transpiration rate, which are both necessary for plants to develop. The rate of photosynthesis and growth is slowed down by low carbon dioxide levels and slow transpiration in high altitude environment.
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What would be the result of a cell that completed mitosis but did not successfully complete cytokinesis?
A-Two genetically different daughter cells
B-One large cell with two nuclei
C -One daughter cell with two nuclei and one with no nucleus
D-Two genetically identical daughter cells
When a cell undergoes mitosis but did not successfully complete cytokinesis has one large cell with two nuclei. The correct option to this question is B.
Without cytokinesis, mitosis results in:The final stage of mitosis, known as cytokinesis, is when a cell's cytoplasm and nucleus are divided into two separate, identical daughter cells.Without cytokinesis, mitosis produces a cell with multiple nuclei but a linked cytoplasm (syncytium).A cell with several nuclei is said to be multinucleated.This may be a frequent occurrence. For instance, multinucleated bone cells (osteoclasts) develop in this way in humans.During their early development, some insects, like the fruit fly, demonstrate mitosis without cytokinesis (Drosophila).It might also be a sign of a cell cycle disruption, a pathogenic condition seen in malignancies.For more information on cell cycle kindly visit to
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A bacterial cell makes binary fission many times and 16 calls are produced during two hours.What is the time taken by one binary fission? a)30 minutes
b)60 minutes
c)45 minutes
d)20 minutes
Answer:
A) 30 minutes
Explanation:
First we will calculate number of division times it will be 16 log/2log =4
then we will divide total time by number of division 120÷4=30
in the sympathetic division of the nervous system, where are the cell bodies of preganglionic neurons located?
In the sympathetic division of the nervous system bodies of preganglionic neurons located, in the lateral horns of the 12 thoracic and the first 2 or 3 lumbar segments of the spinal cord.
Cell bodies of the sympathetic preganglionic neurons are located in the lateral horn of the spinal cord gray matter between T1-L2. Cell bodies of the preganglionic neurons are in the brainstem or spinal cord of the central nervous system (CNS).
Important function preganglionic neurons is they are responsible for conveying nerve impulses from the central nervous system to the autonomic ganglia.
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describe some of the plants with which you are fimilar
Answer:
I like banbanana tree
Explanation:
Answer:
Paddy.
Explanation:
Paddy is a common crop in our country, and I am familiar with it since my early childhood. Rice, which we get from paddy, is the staple food in our country and our food demand is mainly supported by this crop. I would like to thank you for this great topic which expects me to talk about a crop I am familiar with.
Paddy is grown in almost all parts of our country by the farmers. But the north part of the country is particularly suitable to produce the finest quality of paddy due to its arable lands and higher rainfalls. The paddy plant grows well in fertile lands where plenty of water supplies is available. But it can't grow in water.
Rice is the main source for our daily carbohydrate requirements. No doubt, this is the most important crop in our country. If we can't grow plenty of paddy plants, we won't have enough rice. And as a consequence, we won't have enough food supply for our people. This epitomises how important this single crop is for us!
Every nation has its own main crop and its economy is much influenced by it. In our country, paddy has similar influences on our economy. I like this paddy plant as it looks beautiful in the green field and whenever I visit a rural area, lush paddy fields take my heart away. They are such a beautiful sight to look at. The golden paddy, when they ripe, and the green plants, when they are yet to ripe, look amazing when it dances with the rhythm of the wind, it's heavenly. I also like this crop because it is our main food source.
The importance of this crop is monumental, especially for our country. If we do not have this crop in our country even for a single year, we would have a huge problem fulfilling our daily food needs.
describe different ways to harvest trees. what is the most sustainable? why? what is the least sustainable? why?
Using the theories of harvesting, we got that selecting logging is the most sustainable and single-tree selection is the least sustainable harvesting method for tree.
Selective logging is most profitable timber-harvesting method, which explains its choice for economic reasons. However, this actually effect is short-term and disrupts forest health, alongside with other selective cutting negative impacts on the environment.
Single tree selection is a natural regeneration system that was pioneered here in the Lake States. Used primarily in northern hardwood forests, single tree selection is a cutting method designed to regenerate and maintain uneven-aged stand`s.
Hence, the most sustainable way to harvest trees is selective logging as it is economical, and the least sustainable way of harvesting is single-tree selection as it is practiced mainly naturally because of regeneration.
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How can Base Substitutions, Deletions, and Insertions cause changes in DNA and possibly lead to new traits.
Answer:
DNA is a dynamic and adaptable molecule. As such, the nucleotide sequences found within it are subject to change as the result of a phenomenon called mutation. Depending on how a particular mutation modifies an organism's genetic makeup, it can prove harmless, helpful, or even hurtful. Sometimes, a mutation may even cause dramatic changes in the physiology of an affected organism. Of course, in order to better understand the varying effects of mutations, it is first necessary to understand what mutations are and how they occur.
Where do mutations occur?
Mutations can be grouped into two main categories based on where they occur: somatic mutations and germ-line mutations. Somatic mutations take place in non-reproductive cells. Many kinds of somatic mutations have no obvious effect on an organism, because genetically normal body cells are able to compensate for the mutated cells. Nonetheless, certain other mutations can greatly impact the life and function of an organism. For example, somatic mutations that affect cell division (particularly those that allow cells to divide uncontrollably) are the basis for many forms of cancer.
Germ-line mutations occur in gametes or in cells that eventually produce gametes. In contrast with somatic mutations, germ-line mutations are passed on to an organism's progeny. As a result, future generations of organisms will carry the mutation in all of their cells (both somatic and germ-line).
What kinds of mutations exist?
Mutations aren't just grouped according to where they occur — frequently, they are also categorized by the length of the nucleotide sequences they affect. Changes to short stretches of nucleotides are called gene-level mutations, because these mutations affect the specific genes that provide instructions for various functional molecules, including proteins. Changes in these molecules can have an impact on any number of an organism's physical characteristics. As opposed to gene-level mutations, mutations that alter longer stretches of DNA (ranging from multiple genes up to entire chromosomes) are called chromosomal mutations. These mutations often have serious consequences for affected organisms. Because gene-level mutations are more common than chromosomal mutations, the following sections focus on these smaller alterations to the normal genetic sequence.
Base substitutionBase substitutions are the simplest type of gene-level mutation, and they involve the swapping of one nucleotide for another during DNA replication. For example, during replication, a thymine nucleotide might be inserted in place of a guanine nucleotide. With base substitution mutations, only a single nucleotide within a gene sequence is changed, so only one codon is affected.
Although a base substitution alters only a single codon in a gene, it can still have a significant impact on protein production. In fact, depending on the nature of the codon change, base substitutions can lead to three different subcategories of mutations. The first of these subcategories consists of missense mutations, in which the altered codon leads to insertion of an incorrect amino acid into a protein molecule during translation; the second consists of nonsense mutations, in which the altered codon prematurely terminates synthesis of a protein molecule; and the third consists of silent mutations, in which the altered codon codes for the same amino acid as the unaltered codon.
Insertions and deletionsA schematic shows 29 nucleotides arranged to form a partially double-stranded segment of DNA, with 16 nucleotides in the top strand and 13 nucleotides in the bottom strand. Grey horizontal cylinders represent deoxyribose sugar molecules, and blue, red, green, and orange vertical rectangles represent the chemical identity of each nitrogenous base. An extra nucleotide has been added to the replicating strand because of a misalignment of base pairs.
Figure 2: During an insertion mutation, the replicating strand \"slips\" or forms a wrinkle, which causes the extra nucleotide to be incorporated.
You may need scratch paper for this one. deafness in cocker spaniels is inherited. the allele for deafness (d) is recessive to the allele for hearing (d). two cocker spaniels that are heterozygous for hearing are mated together. what is the chance that a puppy will be deaf?
The chances that a puppy will be deaf is 25%.
The term "allele" refers to a gene's alternative form or versions. People inherit one allele for each autosomal gene from each parent, and the alleles are usually classified.
In genetics, heterozygous means having inherited different versions (alleles) of a genomic marker from each biological parent.
If they are both heterozygous, they have the Dd genotype. If you draw a punnet square Dd x Dd, you will get the following genotypes for the puppy: DD, Dd, Dd, dd.
Due to the fact that deafness is recessive, the puppy must be dd, which is 1/4 (25%).
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